大河内 浩人

The present study examined whether bidirectional response-response relations could be established without direct reinforcement. In AB training for 12 undergraduates, higher rates of touches to a white circle on the monitor screen (A1) produced two stimuli (B1 and B2) on half of the trials, whereas lower rates (A2) produced the same effect on the other half. Choosing one of the two stimuli was reinforced according to the preceding responding (A1B1 and A2B2). In BC training, touching a stimulus (B1 or B2) produced three white circles lined up horizontally on the screen, after which one of two different response sequences to the circles (left-center-right, C1 or C2, and right-center-left, C2 or C1) were reinforced, depending on the stimulus presented (B1C1 and B2C2). After AB and BC relations were established, 11 of 12 participants showed the emergence of untrained relations (BA, CB, AC, and CA) throughout five test sessions, and the remaining participant showed it in the first four test sessions. These response-response relations were replicated with five other undergraduates and different trained relations.

Two experiments were conducted to assess stimulus control and generalization of remote behavioral history effects with humans. Undergraduates first responded frequently under a fixed-ratio (FR) schedule in the presence of one line length (16 mm or 31 mm) and infrequently on a tandem FR 1 differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate (DRL) schedule when a second line length (31 mm or 16 mm) was present. Next, an FR 1 schedule in effect in the presence of either stimulus produced comparable response rates between the stimuli. Finally, a tandem FR 1 fixed-interval (FI) schedule was in effect under those same stimuli (Experiment 1) or under 12 line lengths ranging from 7 to 40 mm (Experiment 2). In both experiments, responses under the tandem FR 1 FI schedule were frequent in the presence of stimuli previously correlated with the FR schedule and infrequent in the presence of stimuli previously correlated with the tandem FR 1 DRL schedule. Short-lived but systematic generalization gradients were obtained in Experiment 2. These results show that previously established rates of behavior that disappear when the establishing contingencies are changed can subsequently not only reappear when the contingencies change, but are controlled by and generalize across antecedent stimuli.

A matching procedure was used to examine whether humans discriminate fixed-interval (FI) schedules. Fixed-ratio (FR), FI, or differentialreinforcement- of-low-rate (DRL) schedules were in effect during a sample schedule link. Responses meeting the schedule requirement produced a choice link in which each of three circles was presented with a unique color. The choice was reinforced depending on the schedule of the sample link. In Experiment 1, a correct response equal to or higher than 94.4% was obtained for each sample schedule in each of the four undergraduates. Post hoc analyses suggested that time spent with the sample schedule link may have functioned as a discriminative stimulus of the choices. In Experiment 2, after replicating the schedule discrimination with additional four participants, the FI value was changed to equate to the mean time spent in the FR or DRL schedule link. With this modified FI value, the accuracy was deteriorated but eventually recovered, whereas the lengths of time spent in the sample schedule links diverged across the schedules. Previous studies have shown that humans were insensitive to reinforcement schedules, especially to the FI schedule. These results demonstrate that humans discriminated the FI schedule and suggest that human schedule insensitivity is due to other than discriminative properties of the schedules.

Pressing a key by one undergraduate provided another undergraduate with points exchangeable for money, and vice versa. Four types of response patterns were found. Points were often delivered with a delay from the last response or with no response. When a contingency that responses lost points (punishment) was added to participants who had emitted more responses than the partner had, their response rates decreased while the rates of their partners increased. These results demonstrate that, under the contingency of mutual reinforcement: (a) response patterns that had occurred between monkeys were replicated between humans; (b) obtained response-reinforcer relations were different from those generally programmed in the basic reinforcement schedules; and (c) the behavior of the participant was controlled by changing the behavior of the partner.

Undergraduates were exposed to a series of reinforcement schedules: first, to a fixed-ratio (FR) schedule in the presence of one stimulus and to a differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate (DILL) schedule in the presence of another (multiple FR DRL training), then to a fixed-interval (FI) schedule in the presence of a third stimulus (FI baseline), next to the FI schedule under the stimuli previously correlated with the FR and DRL schedules (multiple FI FI testing), and, finally, to a single session of the multiple FR DRL schedule again (multiple FR DRL testing). Response rates during the multiple FI FI schedule were higher under the former FR stimulus than under the former DRL stimulus. This effect of remote histories was prolonged when either the number of FI-baseline sessions was small or zero, or the time interval between the multiple FR DRL training and the multiple FI FI testing was short. Response rates under these two stimuli converged with continued exposure to the multiple FI FI schedule in most cases, but quickly differentiated when the schedule returned to the multiple FR DRL.

研究の目的 本研究では、ネーミング訓練と比較ノード訓練が刺激等価性の成立に及ぼす効果を検討した。研究計画 3群の群間比較と、2条件の個体内比較を行った。場面 各被験者は実験室の実験装置の前に座り、個別に実験を受けた。被験者 大学生13名。介入(フェイズ1)全被験者に対して線形構造による見本あわせ訓練を行い、5つのメンバーからなる3つの等価クラスが成立したかどうかをテストした。(フェイズ2)被験者をランダムにネーミング訓練群、比較ノード訓練群、統制群に分けた。フェイズ1と異なる刺激セットを用いて、各群に応じた訓練を行った。続いて、フェイズ1と同様に、見本あわせ訓練とテストを行った。行動の指標 正答率と反応潜時を指標とした。結果 フェイズ1では、どの被験者も刺激等価性は成立せず、ノード距離効果がみられた。フェイズ2では、ネーミング訓練群と比較ノード訓練群でノード距離効果のみられない刺激等価性が成立した。統制群では刺激等価性が成立しなかった。結論 比較ノード訓練はネーミング訓練と同等に刺激等価性の成立を促進させた。

現在のわが国では,人間関係を育む機会がいたるところで失われつつある。人間関係能力の育成には,学校教育のカリキュラムの中に計画的に,人間関係トレーニングを組み込んでいくことが必要である。単位制高校の生徒にアサーション授業を試み,その効果を検討した。アサーティブな生徒も含まれる受講生の集団に実施されたトレーニングの効果を標準化された尺度によって検証した結果,関係形成のアサーションの向上が見られた。学校の授業時間内にアサーショントレーニングを組み込むことが人間関係能力の育成に有効である可能性が示唆された。Assertion lessons were given in a credit-system high school. Scores of the relation-formation factor, which is one of the subscales of a standardized scale for assertiveness (Tamase, Ochi, Saino, & Ishikawa, 2001), increased after the lessons. Recently it is said that opportunities to learn how to create human relations have been lacking. The present results suggest that inter-personal relationship training programs, such as an assertion training, being implemented in school is a promising method for fostering socially matured adolescents.

研究目的:本研究の目的はVIスケジュール下の反応間時間(IRT)に遠隔履歴効果が検出されるかどうかを検討することであった。研究計画:二重履歴条件,単一履歴条件と履歴無し条件の3条件を群間比較した。場面:実験室で個別に行った。被験者:強化スケジュールに関する実験への参加経験のない大学生13名(男子2名,女子11名;年齢19-22歳)。手続き:二重履歴群では,DRL 1秒LH 1秒,DRL 5秒LH 5秒,VI 5秒の順にスケジュールを呈示した。単一履歴群ではDRL 5秒LH 5秒から呈示し,履歴無し群ではVI 5秒スケジュールのみ呈示した。結果:二重履歴群の被験者はVIスケジュールの最終5セッションに,かつてDRL 1秒LH 1秒スケジュールで分化強化された1秒<IRT≦2秒の頻度の増加が確認された。こうした結果は他の条件では観察されなかった。結論:本研究の結果は遠隔履歴効果がVIスケジュール下で生じること,IRTが効果の測度として有効であることを示唆するものである。

Four pigeons were exposed to two tandem variable-interval differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate schedules under different stimulus conditions. The values of the tandem schedules were adjusted so that reinforcement rates in one stimulus condition were higher than those in the other, even though response rates in the two conditions were nearly identical. Following this, a fixed-interval schedule of either shorter or longer values than, or equal to the baseline schedule, was introduced in the two stimulus conditions respectively. Response rates during those fixed-interval schedules typically were higher in the presence of the stimuli previously correlated with the lower reinforcement rates than were those in the presence of the stimuli previously correlated with the higher reinforcement rates. Such effects of the reinforcement history were most prominent when the value of the fixed-interval schedule was shorter. The results are consistent with both incentive contrast and response strength conceptualizations of related effects. They also suggest methods for disentangling the effects of reinforcement rate on subsequent responding, from the response rate with which it is Confounded in many conventional schedules of reinforcement.

本研究では,自己教示による痛みの制御に及ぼす社会的基準設定の効果を,コールドプレッサーテストを用いたアナログ研究によって検討した。12人の男子大学生が被験者であった。ベースライン期と比べて,自己教示を使用した場合,被験者の冷水への耐性時間の増加が認められた。また,使用する教示文を実験者が知っているという条件では,誰も使用する教示文を知りえない条件と比べ,冷水への耐性時間が増加していた。しかし,自己教示は痛みに関する主観的指標(痛みの強さと不快度)には影響を与えていなかった。社会的基準設定が自己教示による痛みの制御を促進するという過去の知見が部分的に再現された。本研究の結果に基づき,いくつかの今後の研究課題について論じた。

The relation between reformative self-control and discounting of reward value by delay or effort was examined. Thirty-two Japanese undergraduates were selected based on their scores on a standardized pencil and paper test of self-control, the Redressive-Reformative Self-Control Scale (Sugiwaka, 1995). The subjects indicated their preference (i) between a hypothetical 100 000 yen reward available with various delays and a certain reward of variable amount available immediately; or (ii) between a hypothetical 100 000 yen reward available with various efforts and a certain reward of variable amount available without effort. The discounting of delayed reward value was described well by a hyperbolic function proposed by Mazur (1987). The slopes of the delayed discounting curves were steeper for subjects who scored low on the Reformative Self-Control Scale, which is a measure of reformative self-control and a subscale of the Redressive-Reformative Self-Control Scale. The discounting by effort was also described well by the hyperbolic function, The slopes of the effortful discounting curves did not correlate to those of the delayed discounting curves. The slopes were not systematically different across the groups of subjects with different scores on the reformative self-control scale.

Study objectives: The purpose of the present study was to analyze everyday behavior, specifically, whether the interval between train arrivals would influence passengers' behavior of arriving at the platform. Design: The pattern of the number of people arriving at a platform during the interval between trains was compared at 3 stations where the intervals between train arrivals differed. Settings: The study was conducted at 3 stations in the Kansai district (western Japan) at which only local train stopped. Participants: All passengers boarding trains on the selected platforms during the observation period were participants. Independent variable: The number of trains arriving at a station per hour (2, 6, or 12) was the Independent variable. Results: The longer the interval between trains, the more people tended to arrive at the platform just before the train came. Conclusion: The present results suggest that the arrival of trains functions like a reinforcer, so that the interval between trains functions like a reinforcement schedule.

A report to have responded slowly was reinforced after a fixed-ratio schedule, whereas a report to have responded rapidly was reinforced after a differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate schedule. All 5 undergraduates reported they had responded slowly when the last interresponse time during the preceding schedule had been short, and had responded rapidly when the last interresponse time had been long. This referent-report relation was not observed when every report was reinforced nondifferentially. The results demonstrate that the self-reports were affected by the differential reinforcement when schedule performances were their referent.

Undergraduates responded under a variable-ratio 30 schedule in the presence of a 25-mm long line and on a differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate 6-s schedule when a 13-mm long line was present. Following this, a line-length continuum generalization test was administered under a fixed-interval 6-s schedule (Experiment 1) or extinction (Experiment 2). In both experiments, obtained generalization gradients conformed to typical postdiscrimination gradients. Responses were frequent under stimuli physically similar to the 25-mm line and infrequent under stimuli physically similar to the 13-mm line. The generalization gradients were generally asymmetric with peak response rates occurring at line lengths greater than 25 mm.

本稿の目的は、実験的人間行動分析で行われたルール支配行動に関する研究を展望することである。主な結果は以下の通りである。(a)教示は反応の効率的な生起には有効であるが、随伴性の変化に対する感受性を低減させる。(b)教示に抵触する随伴性は、教示に従う反応を消失させる。(c)教示とスケジュールが一致する履歴は教示に従う反応を促進する。(d)自己ルールに対する随伴性が人工的にプログラムされていないなら、自己ルールと非言語反応には相関関係がある。(e)自己ルールが形成されるとともに、非言語反応はそのルールに連動するが、より弁別性の強い強化スケジュールに抵触するルールの場合、非言語反応は連動しない。(f〉自己ルールと非言語反応との連鎖を強化することによって、自己ルールと非言語反応との相関関係が生まれる。考察では今後のルール支配行動研究の方向性について、社会的随伴性という観点から論じた。

Undergraduates were exposed to a mixed fixed-ratio differential- reinforcement-of-low-rate schedule. Values of the schedule components were adjusted so that interreinforcer intervals in one component were longer than those in another component. Following this, a mixed fixed-interval 5-s fixed-interval 20-s schedule (Experiment 1) or six fixed-interval schedules in which the values ranged from 5 to 40 s (Experiment 2) were in effect. In both experiments, response rates under the fixed-interval schedules were higher when the interreinforcer intervals approximated those produced under the fixed-ratio schedule, whereas the rates were lower when the interreinforcer intervals approximated those produced under the different-reinforcement-of-low-rate schedule. The present results demonstrate that the effects of behavioral history were under control of the interreinforcer intervals as discriminative stimuli.

Six undergraduates were exposed to a fixed-ratio schedule with an instruction to respond slowly and to a differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate schedule with an instruction to respond rapidly when a white circle was presented on a display monitor. When a yellow circle was presented, however, the subjects were exposed to the fixed-ratio schedule with the instruction to respond rapidly and to the differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate schedule with the instruction to respond slowly. Following this, a fixed-interval schedule was in effect during those stimuli and instructions. Under the white circle, response rates were higher with the instruction to respond slowly than with the instruction to respond rapidly during the fixed-interval schedule. Such control by instructions was not observed under the yellow circle. A previous study examined establishment of novel instructional control by between-subject comparisons and found that for three of four subjects (Okouchi, 1999). In contrast, the present results demonstrate the instructional control through within-subject comparisons for all six subjects.

研究目的 本研究の目的は自己教示と非言語行動との新奇な連鎖への分化強化によって、自己教示性制御を成立させることであった。研究計画 言行不一致履歴条件、言行一致履歴条件と履歴なし条件の3条件を群間比較した。場面 実験室で行った。被験者 強化スケジュールに関する実験への参加経験のない大学生23名(男子8名、女子15名;年齢18-27歳)。手続き言行不一致履歴条件において、実験1においては5人、実験2では4人の学部学生に対し、ゆっくり反応するという教示を選んだ時、FRスケジュールを呈示し、すばやく反応するという教示を選んだ時、DRLスケジュールを呈示した。この後、選択された教示に関わらず、FIスケジュールが有効になった。結果 すばやく反応するという教示を選んだ時よりも、ゆっくり反応するという教示を選んだ時の方がFIスケジュールでの反応率が高かった。言語-非言語間の不一致の分化強化の履歴のない他の被験者には、自己教示によるこのような制御は観察されなかった。結論 自己教示性制御が反応連鎖として分類し得ることを示唆するものである。

Four undergraduates were exposed to a fixed-ratio schedule under an instruction to respond slowly and to a differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate 5-s schedule under an instruction to respond rapidly. Following this, a fixed-interval schedule was in effect under those same two sets of instructions. For 3 of 4 subjects response rates were higher with the instruction to respond slowly than with the instruction to respond rapidly during the fixed-interval schedule. For the remaining subject, low-rate responding with the instruction to respond rapidly continued during the first 17 reinforcements of the fixed-interval schedule. Such control by instructions was not observed for other subjects exposed only to a fixed-interval schedule, with or without instructions. The results demonstrate that the effect of instructions can be altered by contingencies and suggest that instructions can function as discriminative stimuli.

The effects of feedback on the control of peripheral skin temperature were examined using a tension‐relaxation experiment. Sixteen male undergraduates were assigned to feedback or no‐feedback groups and asked to increase the temperature of the right index finger immediately after decreasing with (in the feedback group) or without (in the no‐feedback group) feedback during 10 training sessions. A no‐feedback transfer session (post‐test) followed these sessions. During the training sessions, skin temperature corresponded to instructions in the feedback group, whereas it did not in the no‐feedback group. Feedback control did not transfer to the no‐feedback condition. These results were discussed in terms of the ceiling‐effect hypothesis in the baseline‐relaxation type experiment and of the subjects' cognitive events, including strategies. Copyright © 1991, Wiley Blackwell. All rights reserved